Summary-Main Memory
Summary
Memory-management algorithms for multiprogrammed operating systems range from the simple single-user system approach to paged segmentation. The most important determinant of the method used in a particular system is the hardware provided.
Every memory address generated by the CPU must be checked for legality and possibly mapped to a physical address. The checking cannot be implemented (efficiently) in software. Hence, we are constrained by the hardware available. The various memory-management algorithms (contiguous allocation, paging, segmentation, and combinations of paging and segmentation) differ in many aspects.
In comparing different memory-management strategies, we use the following considerations: Hardware support. A simple base register or a base-limit register pair is sufficient for the single- and multiple-partition schemes, whereas paging and segmentation need mapping tables to define the address map. Performance. As the memory-management algorithm becomes more complex, the time required to map a logical address to a physical address increases.
For the simple systems, we need only compare or add to the logical address—operations that are fast. Paging and segmentation can be as fast if the .mapping table is implemented in fast registers. If the table is in memory, however, user memory accesses can be degraded substantially. A TLB can reduce the performance degradation to an acceptable level.
• Fragmentation. A multiprogrammed system will generally perform' more efficiently if it has a higher level of multiprogramming. For a given set of processes, we can increase the multiprogramming level only by packing more processes into memory. To accomplish this task, we must reduce memory waste, or fragmentation. Systems with fixed-sized allocation units, such as the single-partition scheme and paging, suffer from internal fragmentation. Systems with variable-sized allocation units, such as the multiple-partition scheme and segmentation, suffer from external fragmentation.
• Relocation. One solution to the external-fragmentation problem is compaction. Compaction involves shifting a program in memory in such a way that the program does not notice the change. This consideration requires that logical addresses be relocated dynamically, at execution time. If addresses are relocated only at load time, we cannot compact storage.
• Swapping. Swapping can be added to any algorithm. At intervals determined by the operating system, usually dictated by CPU-scheduling policies, processes are copied from main memory to a backing store and laterare copied back to main memory. This scheme allows more processes to be run than can be fit into memory at one time.
• Sharing. Another means of increasing the multiprogramming level is to share code and data among different users. Sharing generally requires that either paging or segmentation be used, to provide small packets of information (pages or segments) that can be shared. Sharing is a means of running many processes with a limited amount of memory, but shared programs and data must be designed carefully.
• Protection. If paging or segmentation is provided, different sections of a user program can be declared execute-only, read-only, or read-write. This restriction is necessary with shared code or data and is generally useful in any case to provide simple run-time checks for common programming errors.
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