1. A memory unit with 4096 words of 16 bits each 2. Nine registers: AR, PC, DR, AC, IR, TR, OUTR, INPR, and SC 3. Seven flip-flops: I, S, E, R, lEN, FGI, and FGO 4. Two decoders: a 3 x 8 operation decoder and a 4 x 16 timing decoder
09 Apr 2018
23 Mar 2018
Determine the Type of Instruction
The timing signal that is active after the decoding is T3• During time T,, the control unit determines the type of instruction that was just read from memory. The flowchart of Fig. 5-9 presents an initial configuration for the instruction cycle and shows how the control determines the instruction...
23 Mar 2018
Fetch and Decode
Initially, the program counter PC is loaded with the address of the first instruction in the program. The sequence counter SC is cleared to 0, providing a decoded timing signal To. After each clock pulse, SC is incremented by one, so that the timing signals go through a sequence T0, T1, T2, and s...
23 Mar 2018
Program Counter
The memory address register (AR) has 12 bits since this is the width of a memory address. The program counter (PC) also has 12 bits and it holds the address of the next instruction to be read from memory after the current instruction is executed. The PC goes through a counting sequence and causes...
11 Mar 2018
Arithmetic Addition
The addition of two numbers in the signed-magnitude system follows the rules of ordinary arithmetic. If the signs are the same, we add the two magnitudes and give the sum the common sign. If the signs are different, we subtract the smaller magnitude from the larger and give the result the sign of...
09 Apr 2018
Control of Single Flip-flops
The control gates for the seven flip-flops can be determined in a similar manner. For example, Table 5-6 shows that lEN may change as a result of the two instructions ION and !OF.
11 Mar 2018
ARITHMETIC SUBTRACTION
Subtraction of two signed binary numbers when negative numbers are in 2' s complement form is very simple and can be stated as follows: Take the 2's complement of the subtrahend (including the sign bit) and add it to the minuend (including the sign bit). A carry out of the sign bit position is di...
23 Mar 2018
Indirect Address
It is sometimes convenient to use the address bits of an instruction code not as an address but as the actual operand. When the second part of an instruction code specifies an operand, the instruction is said to have an immediate operand.
16 Mar 2018
Memory Transfer
The operation of a memory unit was described in Sec. 2-7. The transfer of information from a memory word to the outside environment is called a read operation.
11 Mar 2018
Complements
Complements are used in digital computers for simplifying the subtraction operation and for logical manipulation. There are two types of complements for each base r system: the r's complement and the (r - l)'s complement.
11 Mar 2018
DECIMAL REPRESENTATION-INTRODCTION
The binary number system is the most natural system for a computer, but people are accustomed to the decimal system. One way to solve this conflict is to convert all input decimal numbers into binary numbers, let the computer perform all arithmetic operations in binary and then convert the binary...
10 Mar 2018
DATA TYPES
Binary information in digital computers is stored in memory or processor registers. Registers contain either data or control information. Control information Is a bit or a group of bits used to specify the sequence of command signals needed for manipulation of the data in other register
17 Mar 2018
List of Logic Microoperations
There are 16 different logic operations that can be performed with two binary variables. They can be determined from all possible truth tables obtained with two binary variables as shown in Table 4-5. In this table, each of the 16 columns F0 through F15 represents a truth table of one possible Bo...
15 Mar 2018
Floating-point representation
A floating-point number is said to be normalized if the most significant digit of the mantissa is nonzero. For example, the decimal number 350 is normalized but 00035 is not. Regardless of where the position of the radix point is assumed to be in the mantissa, the number is normalized only if its...
17 Mar 2018
Logic Microoperations
Logic microoperations specify binary operations for strings of bits stored in registers. These operations consider each bit of the register separately and treat them as binary variables. For example, the exclusive-OR microoperation with the contents of two registers .
11 Mar 2018
Subtraction of Unsigned Numbers-2
Since we are dealing with unsigned numbers, there is really no way to get an unsigned result for the second example.
11 Mar 2018
Complements -2
The r's complement of an n-digit number N in base r is defined as r' - N for N * D and D for N = D. Comparing with the (r - I)'s complement, we note that the r's complement is obtained by adding I to the (r - I)'s complement since r' - N = [(r' - I) - N] + I.
Shift rnicrooperations are used for serial transfer of data. They are also used in conjunction with arithmetic, logic, and other data-processing operations. The contents of a register can be shifted to the left or the right. At the same time that the bits are shifted, the first flip-flop receives...
16 Mar 2018
Register Transfer Language -2
The symbolic notation used to describe the microoperation transfers among registers is called a register transfer language. The term "register transfer" implies the availability of hardware logic circuits that can perform a stated microoperation and transfer the result of the operation to the sam...
16 Mar 2018
Register Transfer -2
where P is a control signal generated in the control section. It is sometimes convenient to separate the control variables from the register transfer operation by specifying a control function.
16 Mar 2018
Other Decimal Codes
Binary codes for decimal digits require a minimum of four bits. Numerous different codes can be formulated by arranging four or more bits in 10 distinct possible combinations. A few possibilities are shown in Table 3-6.
23 Mar 2018
Register-Reference Instructions
Register-reference instructions are recognized by the control when 07 = 1 and I = 0. These instructions use bits 0 through 11 of the instruction code to specify one of 12 instructions. These 12 bits are available in IR(0-11). They were also transferred to AR during time T2•
16 Mar 2018
Bus and Memory Transfers -2
The two selection lines S1 and S0 are connected to the selection inputs of all four multiplexers. The selection lines choose the four bits of one register and transfer them into the four-line common bus. When S1S0 = 00, the 0 data inputs of all four multiplexers are selected and applied to the ou...
11 Mar 2018
FLOW CONTROL
An overflow condition can be detected by observing the carry into the sign bit position and the carry out of the sign bit position. If these two carries are not equal, an overflow condition is produced.
10 Mar 2018
NUMBER SYSTEM
A number system of base, or radix, r is a system that uses distinct symbols for r digits. Numbers are represented by a string of digit symbols. To determine the quantity that the number represents, it is necessary to multiply each digit by an integer power of r and then form the sum of all weight...
The BSA instruction performs the function usually referred to as a subroutine call. The indirect BUN instruction at the end of the subroutine performs the function referred to as a subroutine return. In most commercial computers, the return address associated with a subroutine is stored in either...
15 Mar 2018
Other Binary Code
In previous sections we introduced the most common types of binary-coded data found in digital computers. Other binary codes for decimal numbers and alphanumeric characters are sometimes used. Digital computers also employ other binary codes for special applications. A few additional binary codes...
20 Mar 2018
Instruction Codes
In this chapter we introduce a basic computer and show how its operation can be puter specified with register is defined by its internal transfer registers, statements. the limirlg The otganization and control of structure, the comand the set of instructions that It uses. The design of...
