The timing signal that is active after the decoding is T3• During time T,, the control unit determines the type of instruction that was just read from memory. The flowchart of Fig. 5-9 presents an initial configuration for the instruction cycle and shows how the control determines the instruction...
The BSA instruction performs the function usually referred to as a subroutine call. The indirect BUN instruction at the end of the subroutine performs the function referred to as a subroutine return. In most commercial computers, the return address associated with a subroutine is stored in either...
The selective-set operation sets to 1 the bits in register A where there are corresponding 1's in register B. It does not affect bit positions that have D's in B. The following numerical example clarifies this operation.
Initially, the program counter PC is loaded with the address of the first instruction in the program. The sequence counter SC is cleared to 0, providing a decoded timing signal To. After each clock pulse, SC is incremented by one, so that the timing signals go through a sequence T0, T1, T2, and s...
In order to specify the rnicrooperations needed for the execution of each instruction, it is necessary that the function that they are intended to perform be defined precisely. Looking back to Table 5-2, where the instructions are listed, we find that some instructions have an ambiguous descripti...
The memory address register (AR) has 12 bits since this is the width of a memory address. The program counter (PC) also has 12 bits and it holds the address of the next instruction to be read from memory after the current instruction is executed. The PC goes through a counting sequence and causes...
An arithmetic shift is a rnicrooperation that shifts a signed binary number to the left or right. An arithmetic shift-left multiplies a signed binary number by 2. An arithmetic shift-right divides the number by 2.
A computer can serve no useful purpose unless it communicates with the external environment. Instructions and data stored in memory must come from some input device. Computational results must be transmitted to the user through some output device. Commercial computers include many types of
Register-reference instructions are recognized by the control when 07 = 1 and I = 0. These instructions use bits 0 through 11 of the instruction code to specify one of 12 instructions. These 12 bits are available in IR(0-11). They were also transferred to AR during time T2•
The addition of two numbers in the signed-magnitude system follows the rules of ordinary arithmetic. If the signs are the same, we add the two magnitudes and give the sum the common sign. If the signs are different, we subtract the smaller magnitude from the larger and give the result the sign of...
This instruction transfers the memory word specified by the effective address to AC. The rnicrooperations needed to execute this instruction are
The r's complement of an n-digit number N in base r is defined as r' - N for N * D and D for N = D. Comparing with the (r - I)'s complement, we note that the r's complement is obtained by adding I to the (r - I)'s complement since r' - N = [(r' - I) - N] + I.
When an integer binary number is positive, the sign is represented by 0 and the magnitude by a positive binary number. When the number is negative, the sign is represented by 1 but the rest of the number may be represented in one of three possible ways:
Computer registers are designated by capital letters (sometimes followed by numerals) to denote the function of the register. For example, the register that holds an address for the memory unit is usually called a memory address register and is designated by the name MAR.
The last three waveforms in Fig. 5-7 show how SC is cleared when D3T4 = I. Output D3 from the operation decoder becomes active at the end of timing signal T2• When timing signal T4 becomes active, the output of the AND gate that implements the control function D3T4 becomes active. This signal is ...
Subtraction of two signed binary numbers when negative numbers are in 2' s complement form is very simple and can be stated as follows: Take the 2's complement of the subtrahend (including the sign bit) and add it to the minuend (including the sign bit). A carry out of the sign bit position is di...
A bus system can be constructed with three-state gates instead of multiplexers. A three-state gate is a digital circuit that exhibits three states. Two of the states are signals equivalent to logic 1 and 0 as in a conventional gate. The third state is a high-impedance state.
There are 16 different logic operations that can be performed with two binary variables. They can be determined from all possible truth tables obtained with two binary variables as shown in Table 4-5. In this table, each of the 16 columns F0 through F15 represents a truth table of one possible Bo...
An instruction code is a group of bits that instruct the computer to perform a specific operation. It is usually divided into parts, each having its own particular interpretation. The most basic part of an instruction code is its operation part. The operation code of an instruction is a group of ...
The timing for all registers in the basic computer is controlled by a master clock generator. The clock pulses are applied to all flip-flops and registers in the system, including the flip-flops and registers in the control unit. The clock pulses do not change the state of a register unless the r...
The subtraction of binary numbers can be done most conveniently by means of complements as discussed in Sec. 3-2. Remember that the subtraction A - B can be done by taking the 2's complement of B and adding it to A. The 2's complement can be obtained by taking the 1' s complement and adding one t...
The binary number system is the most natural system for a computer, but people are accustomed to the decimal system. One way to solve this conflict is to convert all input decimal numbers into binary numbers, let the computer perform all arithmetic operations in binary and then convert the binary...
Before investigating the operations performed by the instructions, let us discuss the type of instructions that must be included in a computer. A computer should have a set of instructions so that the user can construct machine language programs to evaluate any function that is known to be comput...
The basic computer has three instruction code formats, as shown in Fig. 5-5. Each format has 16 bits. The operation code (opcode) part of the instruction contains three bits and the meaning of the remaining 13 bits depends on the operation code encountered.
In this chapter we introduce a basic computer and show how its operation can be puter specified with register is defined by its internal transfer registers, statements. the limirlg The otganization and control of structure, the comand the set of instructions that It uses. The design of...
This instruction is useful for branching to a portion of the program called a subroutine or procedure. When executed, the BSA instruction stores the address of the next instruction in sequence (which is available in PC) into a memory location specified by the effective address. The effective addr...
An overflow condition can be detected by observing the carry into the sign bit position and the carry out of the sign bit position. If these two carries are not equal, an overflow condition is produced.
The two selection lines S1 and S0 are connected to the selection inputs of all four multiplexers. The selection lines choose the four bits of one register and transfer them into the four-line common bus. When S1S0 = 00, the 0 data inputs of all four multiplexers are selected and applied to the ou...
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